They are governed by corporate laws, are directly responsible to their Native shareholders, and are free to engage in any production or investment profit-making activities, such as hotel construction, oil exploration and drilling, fish processing plant operations, and local business enterprises. Journal of American Indian Education, 39(1), 31-52. During the next seven years, the state invested $133 million in the development of approximately 90 more village high schools. "It is like gospel to us. this allows for a more comprehensive system of specialized programs for Native students. Their silence about us: The absence of Alaska Natives in curriculum. One of the arenas where American Indian and Alaska Native people clearly did begin to take control, and advance to prominent roles, was within the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Kushman, J., & Barnhardt, R. (1999). Alaska was "essentially carved up" between various church denominations for education and missionary encounter. Rather, it was because of the political wisdom and persistence of Indian educators, Indian institutions, Indian organizations, tribes, and other driving forces behind legislative and executive branch actions" (1999, p. 37). The Hootch family, whose daughter the suit was named after, lived in the Yup'ik Eskimo community of Emmonak, with a population of about 400 people. District Court case file concerning Juneau boarding school operator C.N. There are three major urban areas (Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau) as well as 20 smaller towns and about 180 villages. When rural young people reached high school age, they were sent to regional hubs or to Lower 48 schools to fulfill their legally required education benchmarks. (Case, 1984, pp. Darnell, F., & Hoem, A. where the population is 30 to 50 percent non-Native, and in the road system or marine highway schools (accessible by car or ferry and primarily non-Native, such as Kenai, Ketchikan, Sitka or Tok) have characteristics of both the village schools and the urban schools. The bedtime stories and the many more from her grandmother and others throughout her childhood growing up near Huslia are among Eliza's earliest memories. Paper presented at the Alaska Anthropological Association, Fairbanks, AK. It was a promise to Native people that you will have the right to continue to use the land you lost to hunt and fish on. Federal involvement with Alaska Native education continues to the present day through a variety of government programs. American Indian education. (KCAW Photo/Snider) In Sitka, there’s a unique piece of local architectural history hiding in plain sight. Government efforts aimed at providing equal opportunities proliferated during the "Great Society" period of the 1960s with its bold attempts to fight the "war on poverty," and these continued well into the 1970s. And national correspondent Mary Annette Pember joins us to tell us more about Oglala President … ), Cross-Cultural Issues in Alaskan Education (pp. Best-selling books by Indian authors Dee Brown, Vine Deloria and N. Scott Momaday, as well as movies like Little Big Man and A Man Called Horse helped to promote interest in American Indian issues. 127-128). One, at White Mountain on the Seward Peninsula, opened in 1926. Rural Regional Center and Road System/Marine Highway Schools: The elementary and secondary schools in the larger rural communities (Barrow, Bethel, Kotzebue, Nome, etc.) It also provided significant new funding for schools because of the large military bases in Alaska and the high number of school children from military families. As a result of the just-concluded war and as a response to the developing Cold War, an insistence on conformity to narrowly-defined national standards became prevalent. It was not until 1965 that the state began to pay attention to the unique educational needs and interests of Alaska Native people in rural areas. 1. The legislation included a pair of laws. 125-128. 1892 Captain Richard Pratt declares it necessary to “Kill the Indian … Of these, only five were contracted to Native governments in 1983" (Case, 1984, p. 207). In the mid-1950s Alaska was placing a great deal of time, effort and money into its bid for statehood, and the motivation for federal and state education officials to work together to develop a unified system for rural Native education waned significantly. Children as young as 5 were removed from their families… Other districts will continue to respond with reform efforts that are temporary in nature and that only address issues at the tip of the cross-cultural iceberg (Kushman & Barnhardt, 1999). Tippeconnic and Gipp (1982) describe both legal and cultural differences among American Indians and other minority groups in the United States. Beginning with the Indian Civilization Act Fund of March 3, 1819 and the Peace Policy of 1869 the United States, in concert with and at the urging of several denominations of the Christian Church, adopted an Indian Boarding School Policy expressly intended to implement cultural genocide through the removal and reprogramming of American Indian and Alaska Native children to accomplish the systematic destruction of Native … Each village has at least one store, but many Native residents continue to practice a subsistence lifestyle and depend heavily on moose, caribou, seal, walrus, whale, fish and berries for their supply of food. Using the Meriam Report as both a catalyst and a blueprint, John Collier, Sr., Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1934 to 1945, initiated a major shift in Indian policy in the United States. Alaska Natives claimed ownership to land that the pipeline would cross, as well as the land on which the oil fields themselves were located. 127-128). Twenty-one separate rural school districtsãRegional Educational Attendance Areas (REAAs)ãwere established. "For the first time in history, the state Department of Education, in its report for the 1965-66 biennium, declared the need for special provisions to accommodate extraordinary conditions in rural Alaska" (Darnell & Hoem, 1996, p. 74). Misunderstandings about Alaska have occurred most frequently in the following four areas. When oil was discovered on the North Slope of Alaska in 1968, the major oil companies involved immediately applied to the federal government for a right-of-way permit to initiate the largest private construction project in recent United States history. These schools were operated by Christian missionaries of various denominations until around the turn of the 20th century when many of these schools were taken over by the federal government. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. White House Conference on Indian Education. "The audience was expected to respond during pauses with •hmmm, hmmm' . (1999). While there continue to be many problems in following through on the intent of the treaties, of equal concern are some of the unintended consequences, for Alaska Natives as well as American Indians in other states. During the 1910s and 1920s, other vocational boarding schools for Alaska Natives opened around Alaska. This Act was "the first official recognition of the special needs of the children to whom it applied. The 15 member presidential-appointed advisory council was comprised of American Indians and Alaska Natives whose role was to advise the Secretary of Education in matters related to the Indian Education Act, provide technical assistance to educational agencies, submit nominees for the Director of Indian Education, and make recommendations regarding funding and improvement of federal education programs. Alaska Native curriculum and teacher development project website. They have well-developed transportation systems, modern shopping complexes, fully-equipped homes, and extensive educational facilities. Indian Nations At Risk Task Force. The BIA therefore enrolled 204 Alaska Native students in the Chilocco BIA Boarding High School in Oklahoma. When Congress created the Commission, it was directed to conduct a comprehensive study of the social and economic status of Alaska Natives and the effectiveness of the policies and programs of the United States and of the State of Alaska that affect Alaska Natives. Email the Webmaster, Alaska State Libraries, Archives, & Museums, Class photograph, Sitka Industrial Training School, District Court case file for United States vs. Sheldon Jackson [Alaska's Digital Archives], District Court case file for Can-ah-Couqua vs. John Kelly and A.E. Alaska Native Knowledge Network. . Since Alaska was not purchased until 1867, it was, of course, not involved with original treaty deliberations between the United States colonial government and Indian nations. In addition to the increase in the number of Native Americans working within the agency, the National Advisory Council on Indian Education was established under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 in the U.S. Department of Education. The remaining 40% of Alaska Native students are in urban schools where the majority of the student enrollment is white. Although the actual population figures for Alaska Native people have changed since 1887 (a decrease beginning in 1867, and an increase in the past 20 years), the proportion of Alaska Native people across the three primary groups has remained fairly consistent: Eskimos at 56 percent, Indians at 34 percent, and Aleuts at 10 percent. The final report of the White House Conference on Indian Education. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer and educational institution and is a part of the University of Alaska system. This isn't something new to Natives. To remedy the oversight, Congress passed the Alaska Reorganization Act in 1936 which authorized the creation of reservations on land occupied by Alaska Natives. Within months, staff had been hired and five task forces had been named to gather information on economics, education, governance, health, social and cultural issues. Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: from assimilation to self-determination. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Center for Northern Educational Research. A comprehensive knowledge of these histories is essential for understanding the educational institutions, programs and policies that have evolved to serve Alaska Native people. They provided schools for Alaska Native people in Kodiak, Southeast Alaska, and in the Aleutian area. lobbying, use of publicity, legal expertise, demonstrations, grass-roots efforts). And the fundamental question of whether or not it is possible for the federal government to maintain its legally-binding trust responsibility, as defined by constitutional, congressional and judicial actions, without maintaining some level of control has yet to be answered. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the State of Alaska also opened three regional boarding schools for secondary students in Nome, Kodiak, and Bethel (Cotton, 1984; Kleinfeld and Bloom, 1973). U.S. Senate. At the present time, the most extensive published review of the history of Alaska Native education in general is in Taken to Extremes: Education in the Far North (Darnell and Hoem, 1996), though Alaska is examined as only one region among many in the circumpolar area. In 2004 and 2005 my colleagues and I gathered information on the boarding school and boarding home experiences of 60 Alaska Native adults who attended boarding schools or participated in the urban boarding home program from the late 1940s through the early 1980s. and when he didn't hear the •hmmms' anymore he stopped, and knew everybody was sleeping. Johnson-O'Malley, Indian Education Act), and are sometimes supported with additional state and/or district funds. Although there have not been dual federal/state school systems in Alaska since the mid 1980s, the complexity of the shifting relationships among federal, state, regional, tribal, and municipal laws, decisions, and policies continues to directly impact Alaska Native people in areas encompassing education, land and water rights, subsistence, economic development, adoption rights, health care, and justice (Alaska Native Knowledge Network, 2001; Barnhardt 1999b; Kushman & Barnhardt, 1999). Secondary students in nearly all rural and Native communities in Alaska had been attending the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools in southeast Alaska, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, or, for a short time in the 1970s, to state boarding schools and boarding home programs in larger Alaskan communities. On the other hand, today's high school students are the first to be able to attend the same high school their parents likely attended in their home community. Included in these categories were children on military installations and federal Indian lands (DeJong, 1993; Szasz, 1974). The revitalization of the QARGI, the traditional community house, as an educational unit of the Inupiat community. In R. Barnhardt (Ed. Subsequent legislation and funding brought about sweeping and dramatic changes in the educational system in rural Alaska. In M. Apple (Ed. The recorded history of the relationship of Alaska Native people to the United States government begins almost 200 years after the history of relationships with other Native Americans because Alaska did not become part of the United States until it was purchased from Russia in 1867. It repeated "many of the stinging criticisms that had been made in the Meriam Report forty years earlier . Over 40 years after the purchase of Alaska, the federal government determined that: [I]t is clear that no distinction has been or can be made between the Indians and other Natives of Alaska so far as the laws and relations of the United States are concerned whether the Eskimos and other natives are of Indian origin or not, as they are all wards of the Nation, and their status is in material respects similar to that of the Indians of the United States (emphasis added.) Public demonstrations, civil rights pressures, and independence movements were prevalent in countries all around the world. Traveling Alaskans discover that people on nearly all continents have some familiarity with the midnight sun, weather extremes, rich oil fields, vast amounts of land, Mt. 113-194). English is spoken by nearly everyone in the state. Denali, or the Yukon River. A strict "English-Only" policy governed all language and curriculum decisions. The highly decentralized system of schools and districts in rural Alaska, however, is both "the good news and the bad news." Holst, S. (1999). Replogle [Alaska's Digital Archives], Keyword search for "boarding school" [Alaska's Digital Archives], Alaska State Libraries, Archives, and Museums, District Court case file that documents a Tlingit mother's attempt to free her child from the Presbyterian Boarding School at Sitka. At the time the report was prepared, approximately 40 percent of all American Indian/Alaska Native children attended federal BIA schools and about 80 percent of this group were in boarding schools (DeJong, 1993). Most villages in Alaska are accessible only by air and, in some cases, by water. Certainly after almost three centuries people ought to be getting a grip on the nature of this cultural difference. Shales, J. It appropriated an annual "civilizing" fund and initiated a program whereby the federal government contracted with religious groups to operate schools for American Indian childrenãa policy that continued to influence education in Alaska long after it was discontinued (DeJong, 1993). Its extension through two climactic zones (Arctic and sub-Arctic) and its summer sunlight and winter darkness account for great differences in temperature between summer and winter. The establishment of regional "school districts" did not, however, address the need for high schools in rural areas. Native Americans in the 20th Century. (1998). Collier Jr., J. Education among the Native peoples of Alaska. (1991). All students must receive passing scores on a new state high school qualifying exam or they will be denied a diploma; All students must complete new Alaska benchmark tests at the 3rd, 6th and 8th grades, and these may serve as the basis for promotion in some districts; All rural communities and districts must do more in schools with less money and fewer resources; All schools will be placed into one of four performance categories by the year 2002 on the basis of student test scores and drop out rates; Schools in rural areas must provide quality educational experiences while facing a severe teacher shortage and decreasing numbers and percentages of Alaska Native teachers. Several new national groups (sometimes referred to as "pan-Indian groups" because members came from many different tribes) were formed. Alaskan Eskimo Education: A Film Analysis of Cultural Confrontation in the Schools John Collier, Jr. - 1973 Excerpt: "This is a study of the educational process where the teacher and the student represent different communities. Many small, non-Native towns did this and opened schools immediately. These ways have seldom been recognized by the expert educators of the Western world . The Commission, comprised almost entirely of Alaska Native people, produced a four volume Final Report (1994) designed to serve as a blueprint for changes regarding the way in which the federal and state governments dealt with Alaska Native issues. Distinctions between the two efforts are developing, not because there are inherent contradictions in the goals of the two reform efforts, but because of differences in cultural values, priorities, and perspectives. Case points out that not until 1932, though, did it appear "obvious to the Department of the Interior Solicitor that congressional acts and appropriations for the benefit of Alaska Natives, as well as the court decisions relating to them, placed Alaska Natives in substantially the same position as other Native Americans" (Case, 1984, p. 197). In some areas, further clan distinctions are made. Barnhardt, C. (1985). Prior to statehood (between 1942 and 1954), 46 schools were transferred from federal to territorial control. Several parts of Title VII Bilingual Education legislation had immediate implications for many American Indian and Alaska Native students, as well. Haskell Indian Nations University is a federally operated tribal university in Lawrence, Kansas.Founded in 1884 as a residential boarding school for American Indian children, the school has developed as a North Central Association-accredited university that offers both associate and baccalaureate degrees. The state established the Division of State-Operated Schools (SOS) with special responsibility for rural and on-base military schools, and it created a governor's committee to again explore the merger of BIA and state schools. It is interesting to note that all of these reports echo most of the findings, as well as the recommendations, of the Meriam Report of 1928. There was a deal that was made, but certain interests are really against it. . Education and the American Indian. Alaskan Native education: History and adaptation in the new millennium. Durango, CO: Kinaki Press. Just three years later, in 1975, the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act became law with the outward intent of providing increased opportunities for local control (i.e., authority for tribes to contract directly with the BIA to conduct or administer all or part of the Indian programs conducted by the federal Department of the Interior). With twenty different Alaska Native languages, several Asian and European languages, and American dialects from all regions of the United States, there is an unusual linguistic diversity for such a small population. Alaska has many features with which it is readily identified by people throughout the world. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. . The high school graduation rate from Alaska's small high schools is far ahead of the urban schools. With the passage of Native Language Education, AS 14.30.420, the State pledged to establish Native language advisory boards in all districts where the Native population was over 50%. Life on the other side: Alaska Native teacher education students and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. (1996). Among these groups are four different Native language families (Eskimo-Aleut, Athabascan-Eyak, Tsimshian, and Haida), and these language families include 20 distinct Alaska Native languages as is evident in the Alaska Native Language Center map (Krauss, 1980). Because the federal Bureau of Education was not able to provide adequate schooling for all of the newcomers, the United States Congress granted authority to individual communities in Alaska to incorporate and establish schools, and maintain them through taxation (Darnell, 1979). A-1, A-7. Through contracts with eight university centers and fieldwork in 26 communities with 40 different schools from Alaska to North Carolina, the study provided a comprehensive examination of the status of Indian education at that time. Because few government, church and education records are available for the period of time Russians were in Alaska, we have only a limited understanding of their relations with Native people from the time of initial contact. (2000, December 31). Many of the ambiguities and conflicts of interest and interpretations between tribal groups and the BIA remained, and some in Alaska would agree with Guy Senese's 1986 assessment of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act as one that provided only an "illusion of control.". A Yupiaq worldview: A pathway to ecology and spirit. . Education was identified as both a cause and a cure of inequality, and efforts to equalize schooling opportunities assumed a position of prominence in many of the reform efforts during this time. While the federal responsibility was based on treaty and statute, the states' responsibility lay in their obligation to educate all residents" (DeJong, 1993, p. 178). [until] the coming of the missionaries marked the end of these qargit." For one family, a proposal to build a 400-bed boarding school on the site of the former Wrangell Institute boarding school, which had a history of … Anchorage: Alaska Federation of Natives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Community members serve as classroom and bilingual teacher aides in nearly all village schools, and the majority of the approximately 475 Alaska Native teachers (6% of the total number of Alaska teachers) teach in village schools. Alaska Department of Education and Early Development. The range of special programs for Alaska Native and American Indian students, and curriculum components, varies significantly within this group, depending primarily on the Alaska Native representation in the population. University of Alaska Anchorage: Institute for Social and Economic Research. This article documents significant historical events and trends that have helped to shape the policies and practices of education in Alaska, particularly those that have most directly impacted the schooling of Alaska Native people. Polar Record, 19(122), 431-446. Its expanded services included not only education, but medical services, the Reindeer Service (i.e. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. Due primarily to these system wide reform efforts under the banner of the Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative, for the first time in the history of schooling in Alaska, Native people are defining education in their own terms. It is very much a part of my belief in living in harmony with nature, with the land, trees, water, animal and bird spirits." In the years following World War II, the pendulum of federal Indian policy had begun to swing back to a more conservative political and economic agenda. The geographic, historical and cultural context of Alaska has always provided challenges and afforded opportunities for schooling that are often unique. The class-action suit, charging discriminatory practice on the part of the state, was filed by Alaska Legal Services, on behalf of rural secondary-aged students, for not providing local high school facilities for predominantly Native communities when it did for same-size, predominantly non-Native, communities. Fairbanks, AK: College of Rural Alaska, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies. Report card to the public: A summary of statistics from Alaska's public schools: School Year 1998-99. & G. Gipp. Alaska Native Knowledge Network. Economic and educational development in rural Alaska: A human resources approach. Portland, OR: Northwest Educational Regional Laboratory. In a 1998 interview, Will Mayo, then the Athabascan head of the Tanana Chiefs Conference, responded to the frustration still felt about the myriad of ever-changing federal, state and tribal relationships with the following comments about the federal government's failure to enforce the 1980 Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act (ANILCA), which included a subsistence preference for rural Alaskans. Although funding for several federal programs decreased in the 1980s, the momentum generated by the earlier actions continued. Federal Indian Policy and Schooling in Alaska When the United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867, the policies, programs and relationships that had already developed between the government and American Indians began to directly influence Alaska Natives. Bureau of Education schools continued to operate with the belief that it was important to transform American Indians and Alaska Natives into civilized and Christian Americans, and the best mechanism for achieving assimilation into American society was education (Dauenhauer, 1982; Ongtooguk, 1992; Shales, 1998). Indian education: a national tragedyãa national challenge. Austin [Alaska's Digital Archives], District Court case file concerning Juneau boarding school operator C.N. There was in fact no comprehensive effort to remedy this problem by the state or federal governments until a lawsuit was filed against the State of Alaska in 1974. As Native Americans continued to make public demands for local control, they developed a broad base of support. During the year after settlement of the case nearly 30 new high schools were established with staffs of one to six teachers and student enrollments in the new high schools ranged from 5 to 100. 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